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Language Mètode Science Studies Journal : Annual Review. 2017. Issue 7
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- Space, time, and irreversibility : the philosophical problems of contemporary astrophysics(2017) Romero, Gustavo E.Scientific philosophy is that which is informed by science. It uses exact tools such as logic and mathematics and provides a framework for scientific activity to solve more general questions about nature, the language we use to describe it, and the knowledge we obtain thanks to it. Many of the scientific philosophy theories can be proven and evaluated using scientific evidence. In this paper, I focus on showing how several classical philosophy topics, such as the nature of space and time or the dimensionality of the future, can be addressed philosophically using the tools from current astrophysics research and, in particular, from the study of black holes and gravitational waves.
- Astronomy and space on the big screen : how accurately has cinema portrayed space travel and other astrophysical concepts?(2017) Alcubierre, MiguelSince its origins, cinema has been fascinated with the subject of scientific developments. In particular, astronomy and astrophysics have played an important role in science fiction stories about space travel and exploration. Though the science has not always been accurately represented, in the last decades there has been more and more interest from the cinema industry in approaching scientists to make sure that the stories and concepts shown in films are closer to our true understanding of the universe. In this article, I will explore how cinema has portrayed astrophysical concepts throughout the decades, and how sometimes cinema has even inspired the direction of scientific research.
- A new way of looking at the sky : neutrino telescopes(2017) Zúñiga Román, Juan; Zornoza Gómez, Juan de Dios; Hernández Rey, Juan JoséNeutrinos are weakly-interacting neutral particles, which makes them powerful sources of information about the most energetic processes in the universe, such as the origin of ultra-energetic cosmic rays or gamma-ray bursts. However, a price must be paid in order to detect them: gargantuan detectors at the bottom of the sea or under the Antarctic ice are required. The detection of the first high-energy cosmic neutrinos in 2013 by the IceCube observatory represented the start of so-called neutrino astronomy, a new way of observing the universe, which can play a key role in future discoveries. In this article, we describe how neutrino telescopes work, as well as the different initial configurations that made this new twenty-first century astronomy possible.
- Ghost particles in the universe : neutrinos in astrophysics and cosmology(2017) Raffelt, GeorgNeutrinos are nearly massless and very difficult to detect because they interact so very weakly. Sixty years after seeing the first of these «ghost particles» we know a lot about their properties. Today, observing them in nuclear reactors, the Sun, the Earth?s crust and atmosphere, and at high energies from distant cosmic sources is almost a routine task ? they have become unique astrophysical messengers. They are important for a number of aspects: neutrinos shape some of the most dramatic astrophysical phenomena in the form of stellar-collapse supernova explosions, they may have created the excess of matter over antimatter in the universe, and neutrino-like «weakly interacting massive particles» may well account for the dark matter of the universe.
- An extraordinary view of the universe : the use of X-ray vision in space science(2017) Siemiginowska, AnetaX-ray emission from cosmic sources indicates that these sources are heated to temperatures exceeding a million degrees or that they contain highly energetic particles. Recent X-ray telescopes, such as the Chandra X-ray Observatory and XMM-Newton, observed thousands of cosmic X-ray sources. These observations greatly impacted our understanding of the physics governing the evolution of structures across the universe. Here, I review and highlight some of these important results.
- The extragalactic gamma-ray sky : a view on the most powerful phenomena in the universe(2017) Orienti, MonicaThe gamma-ray sky provides a look into the most energetic and violent processes of the universe. In the last years, gamma-ray satellites are scanning the sky for understanding the physics governing the gamma-ray emission. A wealth of information on the physics of the gamma-ray sky has been obtained by gamma-ray satellites orbiting around the Earth. So far, roughly three thousands sources have been detected in gamma-rays, and this number is going to increase as the gamma-ray missions continue to survey the sky. The high energy sky is dominated by extragalactic objects. A large fraction of the detected sources has no obvious counterpart in catalogs at other wavelengths, leaving their nature under debate. This contribution will focus on the extragalactic gamma-ray sky, its properties and processes at work with the aim of discussing the main issues highly debated in the astrophysical community.
- A mysterious Universe : revealing the bright and dark sides of the cosmos(2017) Planelles, Susana; Biffi, VeronicaWhy is our universe as we observe it? Will it be the same forever? Understanding the nature of the main constituents of the universe is crucial to obtain a precise description of the way in which it reached its present state. Nowadays, many independent observations support a picture in which the matter content of the universe is shared between an ordinary and observable baryonic component (~5?%) and an invisible dark matter (~23?%). The remaining ~72?% of the universe content is in the form of a completely mysterious dark energy field. This composition emphasizes that, while ~95?% of our universe represents a major uncertainty for us, even the minor contribution from normal and, apparently, known matter entails important challenges for cosmologists.
- Crazy about science : the difficulty of mixing accountability and caregiving(2017) Obiol-Francés, Sandra; Villar Aguilés, AlíciaThe general model for evaluating scientific production fits into the accountability system: a way of measuring scientific output which does not usually acknowledge the presence of gender imbalances in academic institutions. Here we take the need to rethink this system and the indicators it uses to measure productivity and scientific quality, as well as the social conditions in which these activities are measured, as a starting point. In particular, we urge the review of this system, considering the administration of caregiving to dependents, be they young or old, as an example, because it is an unresolved problem that affects scientific work as well as progress in gender equality in university institutions.
- Gender research from multiple disciplines : profiles, commitments and interrelations in an interdisciplinary group(2017) Buet, MarineOne of the greatest difficulties in interdisciplinary work is being able to focus on a common project when efforts and hierarchies do not advance in the same direction. In this paper, we describe a particular group, Genre Egalité et Mixité, and its operation. This interdisciplinary research group on gender in education, created at the University of Lyon, explores the issue along three axes: professor training, scientific research and the creation of a specialised library. Coming from several disciplines, researchers have different profiles and, consequently, different conceptions of feminism, which makes the team unique.
- Interstellar travel guide : chronicles of a violent universe(2017) Perucho, Manuel; Font, José AntonioIn contrast to observations from our local viewpoint, the universe is extremely violent. Explosions of massive stars, X-ray and gamma-ray binary stars, and active galaxies are related to the presence of compact objects such as neutron stars or black holes. Processes such as matter accretion or the formation and release of relativistic plasma jets are responsible for the generation of large amounts of high-energy radiation, caused by the acceleration of elementary particles, and have a significant impact in their surroundings. Moreover, they are related to the generation of gravitational waves: vibrations in spacetime produced by the acceleration of compact massive objects that produce strong curvatures. These systems are studied within the framework of the general and special relativity theories. In this article, we summarise several of the most well-known astrophysical scenarios, and offer a brief description of what we currently know about them.
- Breaking the glass ceiling : the doctoral thesis defence as a key turning point(2017) Gallego Morón, NazarethStatistics depict a university system that is not a space for equality ? despite what we might expect of a meritocratic system. Women constitute a minority in positions of power and among high officials in university structures. This document analyses the possible causes in the decrease in women?s participation after defending their doctoral theses, a key moment that represents the start of the glass ceiling. It delves into the relationship between co-optation systems, male power networks, and the allocation of pre-doctoral grants.
- An open path for gender equality in research : when female scientists question the state of science and the institutions embrace the criticism(2017) Sánchez, Ana; Samper Gras, Teresa; Jabbaz, Marcela; Díaz Martínez, CapitolinaThe institutionalisation of equality policy in science, both at the national and the European scale, should facilitate progress towards equality in a space that wants to consider itself merit (and ability) driven. But discriminatory practices, both conscious and unconscious, direct or indirect, leave women out of many of the positions that they should occupy according to their accomplishments and capabilities. Many scientific institutions and their professionals still do not understand that if gender equality is only formally achieved and actual compliance is not monitored, they will lose part of the talent they are trying to cultivate.
- The science of difference : the invisibility of women in health sciences(2017) Valls, CarmeWomen remained invisible in health sciences until the late twentieth century because they were not included in the cohorts used in researched studies. Thanks to the work done by different groups of feminist researchers, we were able to visualise the need to change those paradigms. But while gender perspectives have allowed us to research new aspects of science, gender has sometimes contributed to rendering female-specific health issues as invisible. For women to be treated equally, their differences have to be recognised, precisely so that the equal right of both sexes to quality of life can be defended. Therefore, the science of difference should be included in research and taught in all health science specialisations.
- Science from women?s lives. Better Science? : how gendered studies improve science and lives(2017) Magallón Portolés, CarmenRecent gender analyses have been opening new paths for innovation and excellence. They are the basis for the Gendered Innovations project, led by the science historian Londa Schiebinger, in joint collaboration with the European Union. However, this work did not come out of nowhere; it is supported by decades of gender and science studies consisting of different research lines that critically reviewed the history of science and recovered the story of women?s contributions to different scientific fields. This paper reviews the origin and genealogy of the project, highlights its positive effects, and highlights examples of its achievements.
- Science and ideology : the case of physics in nazi Germany(2017) Ball, PhilipScience is not «above» politics and ethics: it is intrinsically political, and constantly raises ethical dilemmas. The consequences of evading such issues were made particularly clear in the actions of scientists working in Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 40s. The accusation in 2006 that Dutch physicist Peter Debye was an opportunist who colluded with the Nazis reopened the debate about the conduct of physicists at that time. Here I consider what those events can tell us about the relationship of science and politics today. I argue that an insistence that science is an abstract, apolitical inquiry into nature is a myth that can leave it morally compromised and vulnerable to political manipulation.
- Charles Darwin and ideology : rethinking the Darwinian revolution(2017) Browne, JanetThis short paper critiques the idea of any coherent Darwinian ideology. Charles Darwin himself did not adopt any obvious ideology, except perhaps that of anti-slavery. However, his published work, and that of other evolutionists, led to the emergence of social Darwinism. Herbert Spencer?s role in fostering social Darwinism, and the rise of eugenics, are briefly described. The connection, if any, between the historical figure of Darwin and the social movement that bears his name is discussed. While Darwin?s On the origin of species or The descent of man can hardly account for all the racial stereotyping, nationalism, or political bigotry seen in the half century after his death, there can be no denying the impact of his work in providing an authoritative biological backing for eugenics, colonial belligerence, and western notions of racial superiority.
- The conversion of the atom : nuclear science and ideology in Francoist Spain(2017) Roqué, XavierAt the beginning of the atomic age, Francoist Spain launched an expensive project for the research, development and use of nuclear energy. Scientists, the military and high-ranking officials in the administration mobilised to materialise a techno-scientific dream of international scope. The modernity of nuclear science contrasts with the reactionary ideology of the regime, but the paradox is only apparent, because there is no necessary historical relation between science and democracy. The stimulus to nuclear technoscience reveals the mutual construction of science and politics during the Cold War era and the different ways to appropriate and exploit the atom during the dictatorship.
- A reconciliation with Darwin? : Erich Wasmann and Jaime Pujiula's divergent views on evolutionism: biologists and jesuits(2017) Peretó, Juli; Catalá Gorgues, Jesús IgnacioUnlike the case of Galileo, the Catholic Church has managed evolutionism and Charles Darwin?s work with discretion. Among Catholic scientists, some defend a variety of evolutionism which is peppered with remarkable exceptions, such as the divine origin of life and of the human species. The Jesuit entomologist Erich Wasmann came to the conclusion that the evolutionary theory could explain his observations about myrmecophiles, so he adopted a Catholicism-tinged evolutionism, which Ernst Haeckel considered false and very dangerous. The Jesuit biologist from Catalonia, Jaime Pujiula, continued Wasmann?s work but adopted stances that were more radical than the Austrian entomologist?s, like invoking the inescapable need for God?s intervention in the transition from inert matter to life.
- Human brain evolution : how the increase of brain plasticity made us a cultural species(2017) Gómez Robles, Aida; Sherwood, Chet CWhy are humans so different from other primate species? What makes us so capable of creating language, art and music? The specializations in human brain anatomy that are responsible for our unique behavioral and cognitive traits evolved over a very short period of evolutionary time (between six and eight million years). Recent evidence suggests that, alongside a reorganization of the brain and an increase in its size, neural plasticity may also play a major role in explaining the evolutionary history of our species. Plasticity is the propensity of the brain to be molded by external influences, including the ecological, social and cultural context. The impact of these environmental influences in shaping human behavior has been long recognized, but it has been only recently that scientists have started discovering the more pronounced plasticity of human brains compared to our close relatives.
- Next stop: Language : the ?FOXP2? gene?s journey through time(2017) Schatton, Adriana; Scharff, ConstanceHow did humans evolve language? The fossil record does not yield enough evidence to reconstruct its evolution and animals do not talk. But as the neural and molecular substrates of language are uncovered, their genesis and function can be addressed comparatively in other species. FOXP2 is such a case ? a gene with a strong link to language that is also essential for learning in mice, birds and even flies. Comparing the role FOXP2 plays in humans and other animals is starting to reveal common principles that may have provided building blocks for language evolution.
