Turtle shell kinesis underscores constraints and opportunities in the evolution of the vertebrate musculoskeletal system. Integrative Organismal Biology, 5:1-23

Species groups that feature traits with a low number of potentially variable (evolvable) character states are more likely to repeatedly evolve similar phenotypes, that is, convergence. To evaluate this phenomenon, this present paper addresses anatomical alterations in turtles that convergently evolved shell kinesis, for example, the movement of shell bones to better shield the head and extremities. Kinesis constitutes a major departure from the evolutionarily conserved shell of modern tur- tles, yet it has arisen independently at least 8 times. The hallmark signature of kinesis is the presence of shell bone articulations or "hinges," which arise via similar skeletal remodeling processes in species that do not share a recent common ancestor. Still, the internal biomechanical components that power kinesis may differ in such distantly related species. Complex diarthrodial joints and modified muscle connections expand the functional boundaries of the limb girdles and neck in a lineage-specific manner. Some lineages even exhibit mobility of thoracic and sacral vertebrae to facilitate shell closure. Depending on histor- ical contingency and structural correlation, a myriad of anatomical alterations has yielded similar functional outcomes, that is, many-to-one mapping, during the convergent evolution of shell kinesis. The various iterations of this intricate phenotype illustrate the potential for the vertebrate musculoskeletal system to undergo evolutionary change, even when constraints are im- posed by the development and structural complexity of a shelled body plan. Based on observations in turtles and comparisons to other vertebrates, a hypothetical framework that implicates functional interactions in the origination of novel musculoskeletal traits is presented.